Bacteriological examinations of water, milk, food, and air
Introduction Bacteriological examination is performed to detect the presence, number, and type of microorganisms in environmental and food samples. It […]
Testing of disinfectant Riedeal –walker, Chick Martin
Introduction Disinfectants are chemical agents used to destroy pathogenic microorganisms on non-living surfaces. Before a disinfectant is used in hospitals,
Preservation of microbes and lyophilisation methods
Introduction Preserving microbial cultures is crucial for applied microbiology, enabling researchers to retain microbial strains for long-term use in research,
Mycoplasma
Introduction Mycoplasma is the smallest free-living microorganism capable of self-replication. It belongs to the class Mollicutes, meaning “soft skin,” because
Plague
Introduction Plague is a highly infectious zoonotic disease. It is one of the most important epidemic diseases in medical history.
Urinary Tract Infections
Introduction Urinary Tract Infection is one of the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. It occurs when microorganisms invade any
Hospital Acquired Infections
Introduction Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), also known as nosocomial infections, are infections that develop in patients during their stay in a
Gram Staining
Principle Gram Staining is a differential staining technique developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884. It works on the basis
AFB Stain
Principle The principle of AFB staining hinges on the unique properties of mycobacterial cell walls. These bacteria contain a high
Bacterial Classification and Structure
Introduction Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular microorganisms that play essential roles in health, disease, environment, and biotechnology. They are widely distributed
Asepsis and Hand Hygiene in Healthcare
Introduction Infection prevention is a fundamental component of safe healthcare practice. Hospitals and laboratories are high-risk environments for the spread
Gas Gangrene
Introduction Gas gangrene is a severe, necrotizing soft tissue infection primarily caused by Clostridium perfringens, along with other species of
Food Poisoning
Introduction Food poisoning is an acute gastrointestinal illness caused by ingestion of contaminated food or water. It may be due
Respiratory Tract Infections
Introduction Respiratory Tract Infections (RTIs) are infections affecting any part of the respiratory system. The respiratory tract is divided into:
Pyogenic Infections
Introduction Pyogenic infections, characterized by pus formation, are primarily caused by pathogenic bacteria that induce acute inflammation. These infections can
Types and Stages of Infection
Introduction Infection occurs when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites invade the body, multiply, and cause tissue damage.
Cholera
Introduction Cholera is an acute, severe diarrheal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It is characterized by profuse watery
Diphtheria
Introduction Diphtheria is an acute, communicable, toxin-mediated bacterial infection. It primarily affects the upper respiratory tract, especially the tonsils, pharynx,
Enterobacter cloacae
Introduction Enterobacter cloacae is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae It is widely distributed in nature and
Pseudomonas
Introduction Gram-negative, aerobic, non-fermenting bacillus Widely distributed in nature; found in soil, water, and moist environments Important opportunistic pathogen in
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Introduction Klebsiella pneumoniae is a Gram-negative, non-motile, encapsulated bacillus It belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae It is a facultative anaerobe
Meningitis
Introduction Meningitis is a serious inflammatory condition involving the meninges, the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. It
Leptospira
Introduction Leptospira species are thin, spiral-shaped bacteria belonging to the family Leptospiraceae. Among them, Leptospira interrogans is the most important
Bacillus
Introduction Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria Belongs to the family Bacillaceae Widely distributed in soil, water, air,
Brucella
Introduction Brucella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultative intracellular coccobacilli. Brucella species are the causative agents of brucellosis, also known
Bordetella
Introduction Bordetella is a genus of small, Gram-negative, aerobic coccobacilli. Bordetella pertussis is the principal causative agent of whooping cough
Haemophilus
Introduction Haemophilus is a genus of small, pleomorphic, Gram-negative bacteria commonly found in the human upper respiratory tract. Members of
Yersinia
Introduction Yersinia is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. Members of this genus are short, rod-shaped
Aerobic and anaerobic culture methods
Introduction Microbial culture is a fundamental laboratory technique used for isolation, identification, and characterization of pathogenic microorganisms. Culture methods allow
Salmonella
Introduction Salmonella is a clinically important Gram-negative bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a major cause of food-borne