Carbohydrates
Definition Carbohydrates are biomolecules consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), typically following the empirical formula (CH2O)n, where […]
BMLT II Yr
Blood Vessels
Introduction Blood vessels deliver nutrients, oxygen and hormones to cells of the body and remove metabolic waste products and CO2
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Introduction Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a popular and widely used biochemical technique designed to measure the concentration of substances,
Radioimmunoassay
Radioimmunoassay Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive and specific laboratory technique that measures minute amounts of antigens or substances (such
Electrophoresis
Introduction Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used to separate charged molecules such as DNA, RNA, or proteins using an electric
Chromatography
Introduction Chromatography is an important biophysical technique that enables the separation, identification, and purification of the components of a mixture
Nervous Tissue
Introduction The nervous tissue is composed of an interconnecting network of specialised cells called neurons (nerve cells) supported by neuroglial
Muscular tissue
Introduction Muscular tissue is responsible for movement in the body. It consists of muscle fibers that can contract to generate
Histology of bones
General features of the histology of bones Bone is a specialised connective tissue enriched with inorganic salts, making it rigid
Histology of Cartilage
General features of Cartilage Histology of Cartilage is an avascular connective tissue that forms the “skeletal” basis of some parts
Connective Tissue
General feature The term connective tissue (CT) is applied to a tissue that fills the interstices between more specialized elements.
Epithelial cells
Epithelial cells are specialised cells that form the epithelium, a continuous layer that covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and organs
Interference Microscope
Introduction An interference microscope is an advanced optical instrument that utilizes the principles of light interference to enhance image contrast
Beta-oxidation of fatty acids
Introduction Beta-oxidation of fatty acids is the metabolic pathway by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria (and
Determination of Sodium (Na⁺) and Potassium (K⁺) Ions
Introduction Determination of Sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) ions is critical electrolytes in the human body, involved in various physiological
Identification of mineral pigment stains
Introduction Identification of mineral pigment stains is inorganic substances that accumulate in tissues due to various physiological, pathological, or environmental
Connective and other mesenchymal tissues with their stains
Introduction Connective and other mesenchymal tissues with their stains is one of the four fundamental tissue types in the body,
Special Stains for Carbohydrates
Introduction Carbohydrates play essential roles in biological structures and functions. Staining techniques are used to detect different carbohydrate classes, including
Special stains for amyloid
Introduction Amyloid refers to a group of abnormally folded protein aggregates that accumulate in tissues, leading to amyloidosis. Detecting amyloid
Haematoxylin and importance
Introduction Haematoxylin is a natural dye widely used in histology to stain tissue samples for microscopic examination. Derived from the
Metachromasis and metachromatic dyes
Introduction Metachromasis and metachromatic dyes histological is the microscopic study of tissue structures using various staining techniques. One of the
Phase Contrast Microscope
Introduction The Phase Contrast Microscope was invented by Frits Zernike in 1930, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize
Polarizing Microscope
Introduction A polarizing microscope is a specialized optical instrument used to observe and analyze specimens that exhibit birefringence or anisotropic
Dark Ground Microscopy
History of Dark Ground Microscopy The dark-field microscope was first developed in the late 19th century, and its major advances
Parasitology - II Yr
Casons test
Introduction Cason’s test is a biochemical test used to detect sphingomyelin, a major phospholipid found in biological membranes, especially in
Egg counting techniques
Introduction Parasitic infections caused by helminths (worms) and protozoa significantly impact human and animal health worldwide. The detection and quantification
Cytology - II Yr
Cytolologic screening and quality control in cytology laboratory
Introduction Cytologic screening is crucial for detecting cellular abnormalities, particularly in cancer diagnosis, infection detection, and other pathological conditions. The
Periodic Acid-Schiff Stain
Introduction Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) stain is a widely used histochemical technique highlighting glycogen, mucopolysaccharides, glycoproteins, and other carbohydrate-rich tissue structures.
Papanicolaou Stain
Introduction The Papanicolaou stain is one of the most important cytological staining techniques used in diagnostic pathology. Dr. George Papanicolaou
May Grünwald Giemsa (MGG) staining technique
Introduction Cytological staining plays a fundamental role in clinical diagnostics by enhancing the visualization of cellular components. The May Grünwald