Salmonella
Introduction Salmonella is a clinically important Gram-negative bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a major cause of food-borne […]
Haemophilia
Introduction Haemophilia is a hereditary bleeding disorder caused by deficiency of specific coagulation factors. It results in prolonged or spontaneous
Transfusion reaction
Introduction Blood transfusion is a life-saving therapeutic procedure widely used in medical and surgical practice, but it is not without
Cholesterol, Atherosclerosis and Fatty Liver
Introduction Cholesterol is a vital sterol lipid essential for normal structure and function of cell membranes, synthesis of steroid hormones,
Shigella
Introduction Shigella is a Gram-negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming bacillus. It belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. Shigella is the causative agent of
Vibrio cholerae
Introduction Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative, curved (comma-shaped), motile bacterium. It is the causative agent of cholera, an acute water-borne
Disorders of Plasma Lipids and Lipoproteins
Introduction Plasma lipids include cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and free fatty acids, which are essential for energy metabolism, membrane structure, and
Bone Chemistry
Introduction Bone is a specialized connective tissue that provides mechanical support, protection, mineral storage, and metabolic regulation. Bone is a
Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix
Introduction The connective tissue extracellular matrix is a mesoderm-derived tissue that provides structural support, strength, and metabolic integration to organs
Cystic fibrosis
Introduction Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a hereditary, autosomal recessive disorder. It primarily affects the respiratory, digestive, and sweat gland systems.
Digestion and absorption of lipids
Introduction Lipids are an important dietary component that provide energy and help in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Due to their
Streptococci
Introduction Streptococci are Gram-positive, spherical (cocci) bacteria that typically arrange in chains or pairs. They belong to the family Streptococcaceae
Escherichia coli
Introduction Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a normal commensal
Uses and mode of action of antiseptics and disinfectants
Introduction Antiseptics and disinfectants are chemical agents used to control the growth of microorganisms and prevent infections. They play a
Hermaphroditism
Introduction Hermaphroditism refers to a group of congenital conditions in which an individual shows discordance between chromosomal sex, gonadal sex,
Biosynthesis and Storage of Fats
Introduction Fats (lipids) are essential biomolecules that serve as a major source of energy in the human body. They provide
Complication and hazard of Blood transfusions
Introduction Blood transfusion is a life-saving medical procedure widely used in anemia, trauma, surgery, obstetric emergencies, hematological disorders, and critical
Di Guglielmo syndrome
Introduction Di Guglielmo syndrome is a rare and aggressive hematological malignancy involving the erythroid (red blood cell) precursor cells. It
Cell organization and function
Introduction The cell is the smallest living unit capable of carrying out all vital life processes. In anatomy and physiology,
Vitamins
Introduction Vitamins are organic micronutrients required in small amounts for normal metabolism, growth, and health.They cannot be synthesized adequately by
Acid-base balance
Definition Acid-base balance regulates the body’s hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration to maintain the blood’s pH within the normal range of 7.35–7.45. Maintaining
Staphylococci
Introduction Staphylococci are Gram-positive cocci that typically appear in grape-like clusters due to division in multiple planes. They are non-motile,
Abnormal haemoglobins
Introduction Abnormal haemoglobins are variations in the haemoglobin molecule that result from genetic mutations affecting the globin chains. These abnormalities
Normal constituents of urine analysis
Introduction Urine is the final excretory product formed by the kidneys and reflects overall metabolic and renal function. Normal urine
Turner Syndrome
Introduction Turner’s Syndrome is a genetic condition that affects only females. It occurs when one X chromosome is missing or
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Introduction Streptococcus pneumoniae is a significant human pathogen responsible for various serious infections, including pneumonia, meningitis, and otitis media. Understanding
Determination of Uric Acid
AIM: Determination of Uric Acid Introduction The end product of purine breakdown in humans is uric acid. Purine catabolism begins
Histology laboratory equipment
Introduction Histology laboratory equipment is essential for preparing and examining tissue samples for microscopic study. These tools ensure proper fixation,
Biomedical Research
PPV and NPV
1. PPV and NPV PPV (Positive Predictive Value) Definition: If a test is positive, PPV tells you how likely it
Biomedical Research
Sensitivity & Specificity
1️⃣ First, Understand the Problem: Why Do We Need These Terms? Imagine you created a blood test to detect a